出处：Planetarian, 2017, 46(1)
标题：Filmmaking for Fulldome: Best Practices and Guidelines for Immersive Cinema (Part II)
作者：Ka Chun Yu, Dan Neafus, Ryan Wyatt
翻译：Horace Lu
（注：键盘快捷键“w”或左侧菜单右上角按钮，可切换文章列表视图与大纲视图）
In Part I of this paper, published in the December 2016 Planetarian (Yu et al. 2016), we discussed the critical differences between fulldome and traditional cinema. We described the pacing of fulldome films, which has its origins in how giant screen films are shot and edited. We described a theoretical framework for how to think of fulldome as a form of immersive cinema, after making the fundamental assumption that the audience feels they are “part of the action,” experiencing firsthand what is shown on-screen. We described how some of the basic grammar of film can be re-thought given this assumption.
本文的第一部分发表于 2016 年 12 月号的《Planetarian》杂志 (Yu et al. 2016)，在其中我们探讨了全景球幕电影与传统电影的根本差异。我们阐述了全景球幕电影的叙事节奏，这与巨幕电影的拍摄和剪辑方式息息相关。该论文基于一个基本的设想，即：观众感觉自己是“行动的一部分”，直接体验着银幕上所展示的一切。基于这个设想，我们构建了一个理论框架，将全景球幕电影视为一种沉浸式电影形式。我们还讨论了在这一设想下，如何重新构想电影的基本语法规则。
Keeping viewer attention 持续吸引观众注意力
Historically, filmmakers have used two methods to manipulate the viewer’s emotion, perception, and attention. The first is mise-en-scène, or the organization of everything inside the frame, including the arrangement of the actors, the set, lighting, and even camera motion. The second is through film editing, where shots are juxtaposed together in an order designed for a particular effect. We shall draw attention to the role of mise-en-scène later in the paper, but will focus on editing first.
在电影史上，电影创作者采用了两种主要手法来引导观众的情绪、感知和注意力。第一种是场面调度（mise-en-scène），即对画面内所有元素的精心布局，包括演员走位、场景布置、灯光效果以及摄影机运动。第二种是电影剪辑（film editing），通过将镜头按照特定的顺序排列组合，创造出预期的视觉效果。本文将在后面部分详细讨论场面调度的作用，但首先我们会聚焦于剪辑技术。
For most of the 20th century, film footage was spliced and physically joined together into sequences, where individual shots instantaneously transition from one to the next, with this transition known as the “cut.” The style of cutting known as continuity editing developed in the 1910s with the work of Edwin Porter and D.W. Griffith (Bordwell & Thompson 2006). This style shows the action in spatially and temporally consistent ways from shot to shot, to make it easy for an audience to follow the narrative.
在 20 世纪的大部分时间里，电影胶片素材都是通过物理拼接方式形成连续镜头片段的。其中，单个镜头之间通过“剪辑”瞬间转换，实现场景的快速切换。连贯性剪辑风格（continuity editing）在 20 世纪 10 年代由埃德温·鲍特（Edwin Porter）和 D.W. 格里菲斯（D.W. Griffith）等人发扬光大 (Bordwell & Thompson 2006)，这种剪辑风格通过在镜头之间保持空间和时间的连贯性，帮助观众顺畅地理解故事线索。
Another style of editing arose from the Soviet theory of montage, developing from filmmakers like Lev Kuleshov and Sergei Eisenstein. They believed that combining and assembling individual shots, even ones that have only weak spatial and temporal associations with each other, can synergistically give rise to complex ideas. Due to such influences, U.S. films in the silent era evolved to have rapid cutting, with average shot lengths down to 4-6 seconds (Bordwell 2006, p. 121). Both continuity and montage editing are employed today in traditional narrative cinema.
另一种剪辑方式发源于苏联的蒙太奇理论，由列夫·库列肖夫和谢尔盖·爱森斯坦等电影先驱提出，他们认为即使是空间和时间联系较弱的镜头，通过创造性的组合也能产生新的意义，激发深层次的思想。这种理念影响了美国无声电影时期的剪辑手法，使得平均镜头长度缩短至 4 到 6 秒，创造出快速剪辑的效果 (Bordwell 2006, p. 121)。至今，连贯性剪辑和蒙太奇剪辑仍然是传统叙事电影中不可或缺的技术。
Continuity editing in film has been successful because it results in clear storytelling that may be understood even by those who have little or no experience with the conventions of cinematic narratives (Schwan & Ildirar 2010). The effectiveness of continuity editing has been further confirmed in studies using eye tracking measurements that reveal that viewers watching scenes from professionally edited films and video sequences tend to cluster their gazes on the same part of the screen at the same time (Stelmach, Tam, & Hearty 1991; Goldstein, Woods, & Peli 2007; Mital et al. 2011). Sequences of moving images that were not edited together or edited sequences that were watched repeatedly do not have the same synchronous attention from viewers (Dorr et al. 2010).
连贯性剪辑之所以在电影创作中广受欢迎，是因为它能够讲述清晰易懂的故事，即便是对电影叙事手法不太熟悉或完全不熟悉的观众也能理解（Schwan & Ildirar 2010）。眼动追踪研究进一步证实了连贯性剪辑的有效性。研究发现，观众在观看经过专业人士剪辑的电影和视频片段时，往往会在同一时间将视线集中在银幕同一区域（Stelmach, Tam, & Hearty 1991; Goldstein, Woods, & Peli 2007; Mital et al. 2011）。相比之下，未经剪辑的视频片段，或经过剪辑但反复播放的视频片段，则无法以如此同步的方式吸引观众的注意力（Dorr et al. 2010）。
For a highly immersive frameless experience such as giant screen or fulldome, we do not expect the audience reaction to be identical to traditional cinema. In giant screen and fulldome filmmaking, the number of cuts are reduced and camera motions are slowed down in order to minimize motion sickness (Wollen 1993). As noted in Paper I (p. 29), audiences are immersed in their visual environments deeply enough that they feel the action is happening to them.
对于巨幕或全景球幕这类提供深度沉浸体验的无景框电影形式，我们预期观众的反应会与传统影院有所不同。在巨幕和全景球幕电影的制作中，为了减少观众的晕动症，通常会减少剪辑次数并放慢镜头运动 (Wollen 1993)。正如我们在第一部分论文中提到的（第 29 页），观众在这种视觉环境中的沉浸感非常强烈，以至于他们感觉自己就是故事的一部分。
Because cuts are minimized (or left out altogether in a narrative journey mode), there can (and should) be ample opportunities for viewers to explore the scene. For extended shots lasting for more than a few seconds, there may be an initial shared point of interest, but as the shot continues without change, viewers’ attention will wander so their points of The safe spaces defined in Fig. 4 of Paper I focus will vary from individual to individual (Dorr et al. 2010; Mital et al. 2011).
在全景球幕电影中，为了让观众有更多机会深入探索场景，通常会尽量减少剪辑次数，甚至在“叙事旅程”模式中会完全避免剪辑。尽管观众最初可能会对某个场景产生共同的兴趣，但随着镜头长时间保持不变，他们的注意力可能会开始分散，导致每个人关注的焦点各有不同 (Dorr et al. 2010; Mital et al. 2011)。
To maintain story flow, the viewer’s attention cannot be allowed to wander indefinitely. A good director has to devise ways to redirect the audience’s focus. However, the viewer has immense freedom to look in different directions in fulldome, since the visible screen space (even within the safe spaces defined in Fig. 4 of Paper I) encompasses a significant fraction of the audience’s field of view. One way is to use audio cues, which can be highly directional if the theater is equipped with multiple speakers and three-dimensional sound spatialization software and hardware.
为了维持故事的连贯性，导演需要巧妙地引导观众的注意力，避免其无限制地游离。在全景球幕环境中，观众可以自由地朝各个方向观看，因为即使在所谓的“安全区域”内，可见银幕空间也占据了观众视野的很大一部分。使用声音提示是一种有效的引导方法，尤其是当影院配备了多声道扬声器和三维声音定位软件时，声音提示可以非常精确地引导观众的注意力。
However, given the wide differences in audio experience between venues, a shareable audio standard for planetariums does not yet exist (Rodigast and Gaston 2010). We therefore focus on visual cues which translate easily between different venues because the domemaster is used as a common medium.
然而，由于不同场馆的音响效果存在显著差异，目前还没有一个统一的天文馆音响标准 (Rodigast and Gaston 2010)。因此，我们更倾向于使用视觉提示来引导观众，因为这些提示不依赖于特定的音响系统，其效果可以更容易地在不同的场馆之间传递，球幕母版作为共同媒介确保了视觉信息的一致性。
Visual cues for drawing attention 吸引注意力的视觉元素
Filmmakers have discovered the types of mise-en-scène cues that draw attention from viewers, which includes movement, faces, bright regions in the visual field, and features with different color. Researchers have been trying to not only substantiate these claims, but to understand how these effects work in the context of the scientific understanding of human perception and cognition.
电影制作人已经识别出能够吸引观众注意力的场面调度元素，如运动，面孔，画面中的明亮区域，以及颜色对比鲜明的特征。研究人员不仅在验证这些现象，还在探索它们是如何基于人类感知（perception）和认知（cognition）的科学原理来发挥作用的。
Based on a review of the literature of some of this prior work, we identify the most important cues we believe can be used to direct attention in a fulldome film. This work complements ideas put forward by other practitioners in the field, notably the “domography” concept from the NSC Creative production team, which describes how to create effective fulldome storytelling with different types of shots, ways to emphasize content within the frame, and techniques for redirecting attention (Bradbury 2016).
通过回顾相关文献，我们总结出了一些引导观众注意力的关键技巧，并将其应用于全景球幕电影中。这些发现与该领域内其他专家的观点相辅相成，特别是 NSC 创意制作团队提出的“球幕摄制”（domography）概念，它阐述了如何利用不同类型的镜头，结合在画面中强调内容的方法，以及重定向观众注意力的技巧，来创造引人入胜的全景球幕故事 (Bradbury 2016)。
Retreat to the center: In traditional cinema, the region of audience focus tends to be near the center of the frame (Goldstein, Woods, & Peli 2007; Brasel & Gips 2008). If there is a cut and there is nothing to sustain viewer attention elsewhere in the frame, the viewer’s eyes tend to return to the center (Tseng et al. 2009). When rapid cutting occurs, such as in movie trailers or music videos, the viewer’s focus also tends to migrate to the center (Tosi, Mecacci, and Pasquali 1997; Le Meur et al. 2007; Dorr et al. 2010; Mital et al. 2011).
在传统电影中，观众的焦点往往集中在画面中心 (Goldstein, Woods, & Peli 2007; Brasel & Gips 2008)。当镜头切换后，如果画面中没有其他元素吸引注意力，观众的视线倾向于回到中心。在电影预告片或音乐视频等剪辑节奏快的情境，观众的注意力同样倾向于集中到中心位置 (Tosi, Mecacci, and Pasquali 1997; Le Meur et al. 2007; Dorr et al. 2010; Mital et al. 2011)。
Even for static shots and regardless of the placement of content within the frame, there is evidence suggesting that attention is always biased towards the center (Tatler 2007; Tatler, Baddeley, & Gilchrist 2005). There is some evidence for a retreat to the center in immersive media in a study of a virtual reality ride, where viewers tend not to turn their heads much despite having the freedom to look in all directions (Pausch et al. 1996)[1]. We speculate that some form of this retreat to the center will also occur in fulldome films. In a film designed for unidirectional theaters, where the audience faces forward, the “default” viewpoint will be in the same general direction, so it is straightforward for a director to place visual content to be noticed by the audience.
研究显示，即便在固定镜头中，无论内容在画面中如何布局，观众的注意力都天然偏向于画面中心 (Tatler 2007; Tatler, Baddeley, & Gilchrist 2005)。在沉浸式媒体中也有类似现象，例如在一项虚拟现实体验研究中，尽管观众可以自由观看各个方向，但他们往往不太转动头部。我们推测，在全景球幕电影中也可能存在类似的向中心回归的趋势。对于针对单向影院（unidirectional theaters）设计的影片，观众通常面向前方，因此导演可以很容易地在观众的“默认”视野方向放置引人注目的视觉内容。
Object motion 物体运动
Laboratory studies of the visual system show that motion is a powerful cue for capturing attention (Franconeri, Hollingworth, & Simons 2005). Motion in the cinematic frame leads the viewer to focus on the object in motion or on the part of the visual field where motion is occurring (Stelmach, Tam, & Hearty 1991; Mital et al. 2011). The greater the amount of motion and change in a video sequence, the more likely that different viewers’ attention will cluster toward the source of the motion (Stelmach, Tam, & Hearty 1991). In Treuting’s (2006) qualitative study using film clips, motion has been found to be more important for drawing attention than faces or bright regions inside the frame.
针对视觉系统的实验室研究表明，运动（motion）是吸引注意力的强大因素 (Franconeri, Hollingworth, & Simons 2005)。电影画面中的运动会使观众的焦点转移到运动物体或运动发生的视觉区域 (Stelmach, Tam, & Hearty 1991; Mital et al. 2011)。视频片段中的运动和变化越多，不同观众的注意力就越容易集中到运动源上 (Stelmach, Tam, & Hearty 1991)。Treuting (2006) 的定性研究发现，“运动”在吸引注意力方面的作用，比画面中的面孔或明亮区域更为关键。
Motion of an object inside the frame can draw attention so that a viewer is blinded to disruptions in the rest of the visual field. Levin & Varakin (2004) found that video clips can have disruptions in the form of a blank screen for as long as 0.6 sec without test subjects being aware of the interruption happening. The viewers in this study were so focused on the main narrative action that they were unable to recall that any disruption occurred.
画面中物体的运动能够如此吸引观众的注意力，以至于他们甚至会忽略视觉场内其他区域的干扰。Levin 和 Varakin (2004) 的研究发现，即使视频片段中出现长达 0.6 秒的空白画面，测试对象也可能不会意识到这种中断。这些观众太专注于主要的叙事动作，以至于他们不记得发生过任何干扰。
Viewers who are not expecting any unusual continuity problems will not notice that an actor is replaced in the middle of a scene in a video clip, even when the two actors do not look alike and are wearing different clothes (Levin & Simons 1997). This effect can occur in real life as well. Experiments show that people in natural interactions with strangers may not notice when the person they are talking to is swapped with someone else during their interaction (Simons & Levin 1998).
对于并未预期出现不寻常的连续性问题的观众而言，他们甚至不会注意到视频中有一个场景中途更换了演员，哪怕这两个演员看起来不像，服装也不同 (Levin & Simons 1997)。这种效应在现实生活中也会发生。研究表明，在与陌生人的自然互动中，人们可能不会注意到与他们交谈的人在互动过程中换成了另一个人 (Simons & Levin 1998)。
These research results may explain why one aspect of continuity editing works. Editors can hide the visual discontinuity created by a cut by cutting on action, for instance, having the cut occurring in the middle of a motion of the actor that is holding the viewer’s attention (Dmytryk 1984, pp. 27-33). This also may explain why audiences seem to be so forgiving of continuity errors (Levin & Simons 2000).
这些研究结果可能从一个角度解释了连续性剪辑为什么能产生效果。剪辑师可以利用动作间的剪辑来掩盖剪切造成的视觉不连续性，比如在演员做一个吸引观众注意力的动作的中途进行剪辑 (Dmytryk 1984, pp. 27-33)。这也解释了为什么观众对连续性错误如此宽容 (Levin & Simons 2000)。
In our discussion of sequences from Samskara in Paper I, we highlight scene transitions that are masked by object motion. In the first example (Fig. 8, p. 36), the main object of focus is a pulsating trilobal pattern in the forward direction which attracts the viewer’s attention, and which, for many viewers, can hide the wipe that replaces the background.
在第一篇论文中对《生生不息》（Samskara，2016）场景的讨论里，我们指出物体的运动可以巧妙地掩盖场景转换。例如，在第一个示例（图 8）中，观众的注意力会被一个前方的跳动三叶形图案所吸引，这种图案的动态变化在很多情况下足以掩盖背景的渐变转换。
Faces 面孔
Faces attract attention because we have evolved to be aware of socially relevant features such as human figures, many animal faces, and the “directed gaze” (where other people or animals are looking). This has been investigated for viewers of static artwork including paintings and sculptures (Buswell 1935; Yarbus 1967), as well as for dynamic imagery in film and video (Treuting 2006; Birmingham, Bischof, & Kingstone, 2008; Castelhano, Wieth, & Henderson, 2007; Võ et al. 2012, Smith 2013).
面孔之所以能吸引注意力，是因为人类进化过程中对社交相关特征，如人形，许多动物的面孔，以及其他人或动物的“有方向的目光”特别敏感。这种注意力的分配不仅发生在观看静态艺术作品如绘画和雕塑时 (Buswell 1935; Yarbus 1967)，也发生在观看电影和视频中的动态图像时 (Treuting 2006; Birmingham, Bischof, & Kingstone, 2008; Castelhano, Wieth, & Henderson, 2007; Võ et al. 2012, Smith 2013)。
When a head is close enough to be seen in detail, the eyes draw more attention than other parts of the face (Treuting 2006). In fact, one of the rules for when to cut in continuity editing of shots with a person moving offscreen is to make the edit at the point immediately after the person’s eyes have left the frame: since a viewer tracks faces, any additional frames with just the person’s body in the frame, but without the face, is unnecessary (Dmytryk 1984, p. 30).
当观众能够清晰地看到角色头部时，角色的眼睛比脸部其他部位更能吸引观众的注意力 (Treuting 2006)。实际上，在连续性剪辑中，一个常用的剪辑技巧是在人物的眼睛刚离开画面的瞬间进行剪辑，因为观众习惯于追踪面孔，一旦面孔不在画面中，仅展示身体的画面就变得多余 (Dmytryk 1984, p. 30)。
Attention to the nose and mouth are also important, with the former used to track a moving face, and the latter when the person on-screen is speaking (Võ et al. 2012). Since faces are such a consistent draw, fulldome filmmakers can use them to not only draw attention, but to lead a viewer’s gaze in directions where they normally would not be looking.
鼻子和嘴巴也是重要的注意力焦点，鼻子有助于追踪移动的面孔，嘴巴则在银幕上的人物讲话时更加重要 (Võ et al. 2012)。由于面孔具有如此强大的吸引力，全景球幕电影的制作人可以在利用它们吸引注意力的同时，引导观众的视线转向他们通常不会注意到的方向。
Brightness 亮度
Visual signals traveling along nerve fibers away from the retina are sent to two different sets of cells that define the visual pathway: the magnocellular and parvocellular systems (Livingstone & Hubel 1988). One set of cells making up the brain’s magnocellular pathway is sensitive to changes in brightness and to high contrast, reacts quickly, but is otherwise colorblind and has low spatial resolution. The set of cells for the parvocellular pathway is used to process color information, is not sensitive to contrast, works slowly, and has high spatial resolution.
从视网膜向外传送的视觉信号，会传送到定义视觉路径的两组不同细胞：大细胞（magnocellular）系统和小细胞（parvocellular）系统 (Livingstone & Hubel 1988)。构成大细胞通路的细胞对亮度和对比度变化非常敏感，反应速度快，但对颜色不敏感，且空间分辨率低。构成小细胞通路的细胞能够处理颜色信息，对于对比度不敏感，反应速度慢，但空间分辨率高。
Experiments show that a change in brightness in the visual field will “pop out” immediately to an observer since such signals are processed quickly by the “magno” pathway, without the need for conscious focused attention. Changes in color, on the other hand, will not be noticed as quickly since they are sent through the slower “parvo” system (Theeuwes 1995). Treuting’s study (2006) using film clips confirm this since bright objects were more important than differences in color in attracting viewer attention.
实验表明，视野中的亮度变化会立即吸引观察者的注意，因为这些信号由“大细胞”（magno）路径快速处理，不需要有意识地集中注意力。相比之下，颜色的变化不会这么快被注意到，因为它们是通过“小细胞”（parvo）系统传递的 (Theeuwes 1995)。Treuting（2006）基于电影片段的研究证实了这一点：明亮的物体在吸引观众注意力方面比颜色的差异更加重要。
Growing in size 物体尺寸的增大
Humans and other animals have defensive reactions to objects they appear to be on a collision course with (Schiff 1965). Human infants as young as 3-6 weeks will blink more and move their heads back in reaction to stimuli of a dark object that is approaching or “looming,” while no such effect occurs when the object is receding (Náñez 1968). In controlled experiments with adults, Franconeri & Simons (2003) showed that an object on-screen that was looming (but not receding), or in motion, or which appeared suddenly would receive greater attention. We would thus expect that an object that grows in size until it dominates on-screen to receive greater attention.
人类和其他动物对于看似即将发生碰撞的物体会产生防御性反应 (Schiff 1965)。例如，3 至 6 周大的婴儿在面对接近或“逼近”的黑色物体时，会更频繁地眨眼和后仰头部，而当物体远离时则不会出现这种反应 (Náñez 1968)。Franconeri & Simons (2003) 针对成年人的受控实验表明，银幕上一个逼近（而非远离）、移动或突然出现的物体会吸引更多注意力。因此可以预期的是，一个在银幕上逐渐变大直到占据主导地位的物体会吸引更多注意力。
Treuting (2006) was able to show qualitative support for this hypothesis in an eyetracking experiment using a clip from the Quidditch match in Harry Potter and the Sorcerer’s Stone (2001), during which viewers shifted their gaze from a player in red who has the ball, to a player in green who is approaching from behind and filling the screen in the process.
Treuting (2006) 在眼动追踪实验中使用了《哈利·波特与魔法石》（2001）中的魁地奇比赛片段，定性支持了这一假设。实验中，观众的视线从持球的红衣球员转移到从后方接近并逐渐填满银幕的绿衣球员身上。
Focus 焦点
If the lens focal length, lens aperture, and distance of the camera result in shallow focus, then only part of a scene will be in focus. The director can set the depth of field (DOF) to keep a foreground element in focus, with the background out of focus, or vice versa. The DOF increases with small apertures, while large apertures result in a shallower focus. Alternatively, switching to a narrow angle lens (e.g., telephoto lenses which have focal lengths 70 mm or higher) will result in less DOF, while a wide angle lens (35 mm or less) will result in more of the scene in focus.
如果镜头焦距、光圈和摄影机距离导致浅焦效果，则只有部分场景是在焦点上的。导演可以设置景深（DOF）来使前景清晰、背景模糊，或使背景清晰、前景模糊。小光圈增大景深，大光圈减小景深。另一方面，使用窄角镜头（如 70mm 及以上的长焦镜头）减小景深，使用广角镜头（焦距 35mm 或更短）增大景深。
A rack focus is a change in focus in the middle of a shot, resulting in a self-conscious change in emphasis, redirecting the audience’s attention from the foreground to the background or vice versa (Van Sijll 2005, pp. 14-15). Fulldome film footage shot live with a fisheye lens (which by definition is a very wide angle, short focal length lens) will have an extremely broad DOF. However, computer-generated animation based on 3D modeling is not limited to what is possible with traditional physical camera and lens setups (e.g., Cole et al. 2006), so rack focusing is possible for computer-rendered shots.
推拉焦（rack focus）是在单镜头内改变焦点，将观众的注意力从前景转移到背景，或从背景转移到前景 (Van Sijll 2005, pp. 14-15)。使用鱼眼镜头（广角、短焦镜头）拍摄的全景球幕电影具有极宽的景深。然而，基于 3D 建模的计算机生成动画不受传统摄影机和镜头设置的限制 (e.g., Cole et al. 2006)，因此计算机渲染镜头可以实现推拉焦效果。
Framing of space 空间构图
Cinematic staging, the way that directors arrange and move actors within the film frame, has been analyzed by Bordwell (2005). He outlines how directors throughout the history of cinema, shaped by the cinematic styles popular at the time and by available filmmaking technology, have employed different methods to direct the viewer’s gaze, including composition and staging within the frame, blocking of actors over the course of a shot or scene, lighting used to highlight people or objects in the scene, and movement of objects and actors to reveal information or emphasize focus.
Bordwell (2005) 分析了电影中的场面调度（cinematic staging），即导演在电影画面中安排和移动演员的方式。他概述了不同导演在历史上采用的引导观众目光的方法，包括画面中的构图（composition）和舞台调度（staging），镜头或场景中的演员走位（blocking），用于突出场景中的人或物的照明（lighting），以及通过物体和演员的移动来揭示信息或强调重点等。
Treuting (2006) tested how viewers responded to actual film clips using eye-tracking. One finding is that when a director visually withholds information, such as in Alfred Hitchcock’s Rope (1948), audience members will tend to seek to find it themselves by searching the frame. Rope is famous for having almost no visible cuts to suggest that it was shot in one continuous take. Instead of using edits to change the audience’s focus, the camera would instead pan to follow characters walking through the set; and instead of cutting to a close-up, the camera would move or zoom in closer to focus on a prop that the audience should be paying attention to.
Treuting (2006) 通过眼动追踪测试了观众对实际电影片段的反应。他发现，当导演通过视觉设计隐瞒信息时，观众会自行搜索画面内容来找到这些信息。以阿尔弗雷德·希区柯克的《夺魂索》（Rope, 1948）为例，该片因几乎没有明显的剪辑点而闻名，给人一种全片用一个连续镜头拍摄完成的感觉。导演不使用剪辑来改变观众的关注点，而是让摄影机平移跟随角色在场景中移动；不采用剪切到特写镜头的方式，而是通过移动或变焦，使画面聚焦在观众应该注意的道具上。
Redirecting the camera towards one direction means that other characters and objects in the scene would be outside the frame. If visual information critical to the story is withheld, viewers will actively scan the frame in anticipation of seeing that important detail. Since immersive fulldome cinema is effectively frameless, cinematic staging is done without the edges of the frame to help constrain visual content. But as shown in the sample frame sequences below, there are multiple ways for directors to stage the camera and the scene to drive viewer attention.
改变摄影机的拍摄方向，意味着场景中其他的角色和物体可能会出画。如果故事中关键的视觉信息暂未展示，则观众会主动在画面中寻找这些重要细节。由于沉浸式全景球幕电影是没有景框的，因此场面调度不依赖景框边缘来限制视觉内容。不过，正如以下示例镜头片段所示，导演可以通过多种方式调度摄影机和场景，以有效引导观众的注意力。
Match cuts 匹配剪辑
A match cut refers to the bridging of two shots that have visual elements that match each other. More often they are used dramatically to link together different ideas, locations, or time periods represented by the individual shots (Van Sijjl 2005, pp. 118-131). The transition from prehistoric to spacefaring eras in 2001: A Space Odyssey is executed with one of the most famous match cuts in all of cinema: a shot of a bone tossed up into the air cuts to a satellite in orbit around the Earth. This cut manages to embody all of the different ways that match cuts can work.
画面匹配剪辑是一种通过视觉元素的相似性将两个镜头巧妙连接起来的技巧，这种技巧常用于戏剧性地将不同的观点、地点或时间段联系起来 (Van Sijjl 2005, pp. 118-131)。比如在《2001: 太空漫游》（2001: A Space Odyssey，1968）中，从将骨头抛向空中的镜头剪切到绕地轨道运行的卫星镜头，就是影史最著名的匹配剪辑之一，它巧妙地展现了匹配剪辑的多种可能性。
In addition to matching the physical shape and motion of the two objects, the cut represents a leap to a different time and place, as well as conveying the evolution of weaponry, from a bone used as a club to nuclear weapons in orbit (a concept dropped from the final film; Walker, Taylor, & Ruchti 1999; pp. 181-182).
这一处匹配剪辑除了不仅匹配了两个对象的物理形态和动作，还象征着时间和空间的跳跃，以及武器从原始的骨头到太空中的核武器的演变，尽管后者在最终影片中并未呈现。
Editing that follows the rules of Hollywood continuity also has a tendency to lead to “edit blindness” where the audience does not notice a cut has occurred. Smith & Henderson (2008) have found that cutting together two shots that have matching action—such as a character reaching for a door and a cut to a close-up of a hand grasping the doorknob—are more “invisible” to the viewer.
遵循好莱坞连续性剪辑规则的影片往往能够达到“无感知剪辑”的效果，观众几乎意识不到剪辑的存在。Smith & Henderson (2008) 研究发现，当两个动作匹配的镜头拼接在一起时，如一个角色伸手开门紧接着切换到手握门把的特写，这种剪辑对观众来说几乎是不可见的。
Cuts matching action are found to be the most seamless if there is a slight repeat of the action for several frames from the first cut in the second cut (Shimamura, Cohn-Sheehy, & Shimamura 2014). Viewers are able to re-orient their attention after a cut if the visual content between the two shots are similar enough (Valuch et al. 2014). For fulldome films, a match cut can be used to maintain viewer focus in the same direction in the dome after the cut as before the cut.
为了实现更自然的过渡，如果第二个剪辑开始时能够轻微重复第一个剪辑中的几格动作，这样的动作匹配剪辑会显得更加流畅 (Shimamura, Cohn-Sheehy, & Shimamura 2014)。此外，如果两个镜头之间的视觉内容足够相似，观众就能够在剪切后迅速调整注意力 (Valuch et al. 2014)。在全景球幕电影中，可以通过匹配剪辑使观众在剪辑前后的注意力保持在同一方向。
Color variation 色彩变化
An object or part of a scene that changes color can draw attention, although this is subordinate to other cues such as motion (Smith 2013). Similarly, Buswell (1935) found that when viewing static pictures, colors that were pronounced drew less than expected amount of attention, and Tatler, Baddeley, & Gilchrist (2005) confirmed this in a modern eye tracking experiment with photographs.
一个物体或部分场景的色彩变化能够吸引观众的注意力，但这种效果通常不如运动等其他视觉线索那么显著 (Smith 2013)。类似地，Buswell (1935) 发现，在观看静态图片时，鲜明的颜色并没有如预期那样吸引注意力。Tatler, Baddeley, & Gilchrist (2005) 通过针对图像的现代眼动追踪实验证实了这个结论。
Franconeri & Simons (2003) found that color was one factor that did not lead to greater attention from the adult test subjects in their experiments. The cone photoreceptor cells most sensitive to color are clustered near the center of the fovea of the retina with sharp dropoffs in cell density just 10° away from the center (Purves et al. 2001). Therefore, changes in color will not be as detectable in a viewer’s peripheral vision.
Franconeri & Simons (2003) 发现，在成人测试对象中，颜色并不是一个能显著增加注意力的因素。这是因为人眼中对颜色最为敏感的视锥细胞主要集中于视网膜的中央凹区域，而在中央凹外 10 度处，这些细胞的密度就会急剧下降。因此，在观众的周围视觉中，对色彩变化的辨识度较低。
Although color is less powerful as a way to draw attention, there are films that are predominantly black and white, but shows objects on-screen in full color (e.g., the flag in Battleship Potemkin, the girl with the red coat in Schindler’s List, the splashes of color throughout Sin City). In extreme examples like these, the contrast of an object saturated with color against a monochromatic background can draw immediate attention if the viewer is looking in the same direction.
尽管颜色作为一种吸引注意力的方式的影响较弱，但仍有一些以黑白为主的影片，通过在银幕上以全彩呈现某些物体来吸引观众，如《战舰波将金号》（Battleship Potemkin）中的旗帜，《辛德勒的名单》（Schindler’s List）中的红衣女孩，《罪恶之城》（Sin City）全片飞溅的色彩等。在这些极端的例子中，当观众视线方向一致时，这种与单色背景形成鲜明对比的彩色物体能够迅速吸引并集中观众的注意力。
Camera motion 摄影机运动
For straight-ahead motion, we theorize that the point in the visual field where the camera is headed (or the “focus of expansion”) will draw attention. Similarly when the camera is moving forward while turning, there will be a tendency for the viewer to focus in the direction of the turn.
我们推测，在摄影机直线向前运动时，观众视线会被吸引到摄影机前进方向的焦点上，即视觉场中的“扩张/扩展焦点”（“focus of expansion, FoE”）。类似地，当摄影机在向前移动的过程中转向时，观众的注意力也会自然地跟随转向。
This is supported by eye-tracking experiments that followed drivers navigating vehicles on actual streets. For curved roads, drivers directed their gaze into the turn, instead of merely relying on their peripheral vision (Shinar, McDowell, & Rockwell 1977; Land & Lee 1994).
这一理论得到了眼动追踪实验的证实，这些实验观察了驾驶员在真实街道上驾驶时的行为。研究表明，在行驶于弯曲道路时，驾驶员会将视线投向转弯的方向，而不是只依赖周围视觉。
Treuting (2006) showed that viewers watching a movie clip with a point-of-view shot of a foot chase through a city tended to focus ahead. However, since the narrative involved the main character hunting a criminal suspect, viewers would often redirect their focus to people and objects that were passing by to see if they matched the target of the chase.
Treuting (2006) 的实验也发现，观众在观看模拟城市中追逐场景的第一人称视角影片时，往往会注视前方。但如果影片的叙事涉及到主角在追捕犯罪嫌疑人，观众则可能会将注意力转移到经过的人和物体上，以判断是否为追捕目标。
In the case of many astronomical fulldome films, when a camera moves forward through a three-dimensional star field, the stars translate forward towards the viewer, with the translation vectors pointing back to the focus of expansion in front of the camera. Although not experimentally verified, we hypothesize that this vanishing point will naturally draw a viewer’s eyes if there is otherwise nothing visually distinctive about the optic flow of stars streaming past. If the camera is turning while moving forward, we speculate that the audience gaze will re-focus towards the turn.
在许多天文主题的全景球幕电影中，当摄影机穿过三维星空中前进时，星星会向观众方向移动，其移动方向指向摄影机前方的“扩张焦点”。尽管尚未通过实验验证，但我们假设，如果星星流动的视觉信息没有其他显著特征，那么这个扩张焦点将自然吸引观众的视线。如果摄影机在前进的同时进行转向，我们预计观众的视线将重新集中到转向的方向。
Fulldome case studies 全景球幕案例分析
In this section, we examine five different sequences by examining original domemaster frames from three fulldome films: Black Holes: The Other Side of Infinity (2006) and Dynamic Earth (2012), both directed by Tom Lucas, as well as Habitat Earth (2015), directed by one of the authors (Wyatt). By looking at these sequences, which include those that consist of multiple shots edited together as well as shots that consist of continuous motion, we will see how the audience’s gaze can be drawn by elements within the shot, through framing devices, and with match cuts.
在本节中，我们深入分析了三部全景电影：《黑洞：无限的另一面》（Black Holes: The Other Side of Infinity，2006），《动态地球》（Dynamic Earth，2012），以及《地球：万物的栖息地》（Habitat Earth，2015），从中选择了五组不同的镜头片段。前两部作品由 Tom Lucas 执导，而第三部则由本文作者之一 Wyatt 执导。这些镜头片段包括了由多个镜头组成的复杂场景以及单一镜头中的连续运动，通过仔细审视它们，我们可以了解到观众的注意力是如何被镜头中的视觉元素、构图技巧和匹配剪辑所引导的。这种分析有助于揭示全景球幕电影中视觉叙事的构建方式，以及如何有效地抓住并保持观众的兴趣。
Black Holes 《黑洞》
Swift Pre-Launch (1:53) Swift 天文台发射前准备
Fig. 11: Domemaster from Black Holes: The Other Side of Infinity showing the Delta II rocket bearing the Swift observatory. ©DMNS and Thomas Lucas Productions.
图 11：《黑洞：无限的另一面》的球幕母版，展示运载 Swift 天文台 的 Delta II 火箭。©DMNS 和 Thomas Lucas Productions 版权所有。
The first sequence is the simplest of our examples: live film footage of the Delta II rocket taking the Swift Gamma Ray Burst Mission satellite into orbit from Cape Canaveral (Fig. 11). The rocket is lit up at night and the rest of the domemaster frame is in complete darkness [2]. Because most of the domemaster is black, the eye is drawn to the brightly light rocket and gantry in the forward center part of the frame. The motion of the rocket and the slow brightening of the lights also help to draw the audience’s attention.
本片的第一组镜头片段是以下例子中最简单的，展现了 Delta II 火箭搭载 Swift 伽马射线暴（Swift Gamma Ray Burst Mission）任务卫星进入卡纳维拉尔角上空轨道的实景拍摄镜头（见图 11）。夜空中的火箭被照亮，而画面的其余部分则沉浸在一片漆黑之中。由于球幕母版画面大部分是黑色的，因此观众的视线自然会被吸引到画面前方中央明亮的火箭和发射架上。火箭的运动轨迹和灯光从暗到亮的变化也有助于吸引并保持观众的注意力。
Swift Launch Sequence (2:37-2:56) Swift 发射镜头片段
Fig. 12: Domemasters from Black Holes: The Other Side of Infinity showing the launch sequence of the Swift spacecraft from Cape Canaveral. ©DMNS and Thomas Lucas Productions.
图 12：《黑洞：无限的另一面》球幕母版影像，展示了 Swift 航天器在卡纳维拉尔角由 Delta II 火箭发射升空的壮观场面。©DMNS 和 Thomas Lucas Productions 版权所有。
The subsequent launch footage of the Delta II rocket intercuts reaction shots of scientists involved with the Swift mission on the ground as they see the rocket go up, with telephoto footage of the rocket rising up from the launch pad and in the air. The first shot is from the ground with the camera tracking from right to left, and pointed back at a row of scientists standing on the ground in Florida (Fig. 12a). Many of the faces are hidden by binoculars, so we are drawn to the faces that we can see, including one man in the white t-shirt who benefits from the viewers’ center bias by standing just slightly to the left of center.
接下来的发射画面中，我们看到了与 Swift 任务相关的科学家们在地面上的反应，他们目睹了火箭升空的瞬间，以及火箭从发射台腾空而起的长焦镜头。首个镜头捕捉了佛罗里达州地面上一排科学家的侧影，他们中的许多人正通过望远镜观看发射（图 12a）。由于大部分面孔被望远镜遮挡，观众的注意力自然会被那些未被遮挡的面孔所吸引，尤其是那位穿着白色 T 恤、站在中心略偏左位置的男士，他恰好处于观众视觉偏好的中心区域。
We cut to the rocket taking off after the countdown clock reaches zero. The rocket is in the front center part of the frame, matching the location of the previous subject with a visible face before the cut (Fig. 12b).
当倒计时归零，镜头切换到火箭点火升空的瞬间。火箭位于画面的正中央，与切换前我们所见的科学家面孔位置相呼应（图 12b）。
In Fig. 12c, we cut back to the crowd to see their ecstatic reaction shots. The camera tracks back in the opposite direction, and again most of the faces are hidden behind binoculars and cameras. The single visible face belongs to the man in glasses, white hat, and yellow shirt who has a wide grin across his face. His face and position in the front center part of the frame make him the focus of attention.
在图 12c 中，镜头切换回观众，捕捉他们欣喜若狂的反应。这一次，摄影机沿相反方向移动，大多数人的面孔仍被望远镜和相机遮住。唯一可见的面孔是戴眼镜、白帽子和黄衬衫的男人，他脸上露出灿烂的笑容。他的位置在画面前方中央，使他成为观众关注的焦点。
In Fig. 12d, we cut again but the camera stays on the ground. We are on the other side of the crowd, seeing the rocket plume where the smiling man was in the previous shot. The cut has matched the position of where we were looking before with the rocket plume that we need to focus on in the far distance.
图 12d 再次切换镜头，但这次镜头依然聚焦于地面。我们转移到了人群的另一侧，看到火箭尾迹取代了前一个镜头中微笑男士的位置。这次切换巧妙地将观众的视角与远处需要关注的火箭尾迹对齐。
To help direct the viewer’s attention, there are individuals with their backs turned who are on either side of the rising rocket. Since we do not see any faces, the people in the shot act as framing architecture to direct our attention. Everyone in the shot is also looking at the rocket via binoculars or with their normal unaided vision. Since we have a tendency to look where people are gazing, we follow the gazes of the crowd at Cape Canaveral as well.
为了引导观众的注意力，画面中有几个人背对着镜头，站在升起的火箭两侧。由于他们的面孔不可见，这些人在画面中充当了引导视线的框架。画面中的每个人都在注视着火箭，无论是通过望远镜还是裸眼。我们自然而然地会跟随他人的目光，因此也会顺着卡纳维拉尔角人群的视线，聚焦于火箭之上。
Flight Through the Milky Galaxy (0:47-1:09) 飞越银河
This is a sequence that we covered in Yu et al. (2007), but we repeat it here in more detail. The sequence consists of a rendered flight through a simulation of the Milky Way Galaxy. During the course of the flight, a star turns into a red giant, and then explodes into a supernova. Given the vast number of stars visible in the domemaster, is it possible to get the audience to notice the red giant before it explodes?
这段镜头在 Yu 等人 (2007) 的研究中已经探讨过了，现在我们将进一步深入分析。该片段展示了一段模拟穿过银河系飞行的渲染画面，在飞行过程中，一颗恒星烟花成红巨星，并最终爆炸成为超新星。在全景母版画面中可见的恒星数量如此之多，我们能否在这颗红巨星爆炸前吸引观众注意到它呢？
Fig. 13: Domemasters from Black Holes: The Other Side of Infinity showing flight through the Milky Way Galaxy and the supernova explosion of a red giant. ©DMNS and NCSA, University of Illinois.
图 13：《黑洞：无限的另一面》中的球幕母版，展示了穿越银河系和红巨星超新星爆炸的飞行场景。©DMNS NCSA 伊利诺伊大学 版权所有。
The start of the sequence (Fig. 13a) has the camera flying through the Milky Way, banking and turning to the right. We have a natural propensity to turn our gaze to the right as well, trying to anticipate what is coming “just around the corner”—or in this case, just beyond the right edge of the domemaster.
在片段的起始部分（图 13a），摄影机在银河系中飞行，倾斜并向右转弯。我们的视线也会自然地随之右转，试图预测即将出现在球幕母版右侧边缘“拐角处”之外的景象。
The bank and turn ends and the camera levels out and flies forward. Our gaze also levels out and re-centers towards the direction the camera is headed towards. The stars whizzing past point back to this vanishing point in the distance. Normally the band of the Milky Way and the Magellanic Clouds would attract attention by being bright objects against a dark backdrop. However the latter are in the upper left of the domemaster, meaning they are far in the back and hence not noticeable to an audience facing forward. The Milky Way cuts across the domemaster nearly at the halfway mark, meaning it is high up, again making it hard to see. Both the composition and the camera motion is leading the viewer’s eyes to a point below the Galactic Center. And as the camera continues to move forward, a star to the right of this direction turns into a red giant (Fig. 13b). The dynamic color shift and change in size is very noticeable when all of the other stars remain monochromatic points. The red giant expands, and then suddenly explodes into a supernova in a bright flash (Fig. 13c), followed by the expanding supernova remnant. The change in brightness, size, and varied colors of the expanding supernova remnant all serve to highlight this object (Fig. 13d) so that if you miss it earlier in the sequence, multiple dynamic cues will eventually draw your eyes to the exploding star.
当倾斜和转弯结束，摄影机平稳飞行，我们的视线也会随之平稳，并重新集中在摄影机前进的方向。飞速掠过的恒星似乎都指向远处的消失点。通常，银河系的明亮带（the band of the Milky Way）和麦哲伦星云（Magellanic Clouds）作为黑暗背景下的明亮主体会吸引观众的目光，但它们位于球幕母版的左上方，对于面向前方的观众来说太远了，不太容易注意到。银河系在球幕母版上的位置接近中点，因此也处于较高的位置，不易观察。构图和摄影机运动将观众的视线引向银心（Galactic Center）下方的某一点。随着摄影机的前进，这个方向右侧的一颗恒星转变成了红巨星（图 13b）。在所有其他恒星都保持为单色点的情况下，这颗恒星颜色的动态变化和体积的增大非常引人注目。红巨星随后膨胀，并在一次突然的明亮闪光中爆炸成超新星（图 13c），接着是超新星遗迹的膨胀。超新星遗迹的亮度变化、体积增大、颜色变化，都使其成为焦点（图 13d），即使观众在这段镜头早期错过了这一变化，多个动态线索最终也会将他们的目光吸引到这颗爆炸的恒星上。
Dynamic Earth 动态地球
Undersea Currents (6:53-7:20) 海下洋流
Fig. 14: Domemasters from Dynamic Earth showing surface and deep water currents, including the Gulf Stream, off the southeastern coast of the United States. ©DMNS and NASA Science Visualization Studio.
图 14：《动态地球》的球幕母版，展示了海洋表面和深处的洋流，包括位于美国东南沿海的墨西哥湾流（Gulf Stream）。 ©DMNS 和 NASA 科学可视化工作室 版权所有。
In a sequence showing undersea currents starts above Earth with the currents visualized as moving arrows that twist and follow surface and underwater barriers, circulate, diverge, and converge. Currents near the surface are colored white while deeper ones are colder and hence colored blue and purple. The camera is above North America long enough for the audience to recognize familiar features like the Florida peninsula before plunging into the water below (Fig. 14a).
展示海下洋流的镜头片段起始于地球的高空，洋流通过动态箭头形象地展现出来，它们随着地表和水下障碍物的形态变化而旋转、移动、循环、发散和汇聚。接近水面的洋流以白色呈现，而深海中的冷流则以蓝色和紫色表示。摄影机在北美洲上空停留片刻，让观众能够认出佛罗里达半岛等熟悉的地理特征，然后镜头陡然扎入水中（见图 14a）。
Once underwater, a careful viewer will discern the continental shelves and underwater seamounts that can deflect currents. However what is most noticeable are the bright white arrows swirling just beneath the surface. But because the camera lies below these currents, our gaze is turned to the eddies of currents above us, drawn by both the bright color as well as the frenetic activity of the arrows (Fig. 14b).
进入水下世界后，观众可以细致地观察到影响洋流走向的大陆架和海底海山。然而，最吸引人注意的是那些在水面下方旋涡状的明亮白色箭头。由于摄影机位于洋流之下，我们的视线被吸引到上方的洋流旋涡处，这些箭头的鲜亮色彩和快速运动令人着迷（见图 14b）。
For the unsuspecting viewer still mesmerized by the white surface arrows, there will be a surprise as a school of blue to purplish arrows are headed straight for the audience from the far right, looming larger in size as they approach (Fig. 14c). The viewer may not notice this until the arrows “collide” with and slip around the virtual camera. At this point they are impossible to ignore because they appear as if they are aiming for the viewer, and are more dominating (larger and faster) than the white surface arrows which now become lost behind the flurry of foreground activity (Fig. 14d).
对于那些仍被白色表面箭头所吸引的观众，当一系列从右侧远处直冲向观众的蓝色至紫罗兰色的箭头出现时，观众们会产生惊喜感（图 14c）。这些箭头在接近时体积逐渐变大，直到它们“撞击”并绕过虚拟摄影机，变得异常醒目。此时，它们看起来仿佛正向观众袭来，其规模和速度都超过了前景中的白色箭头，使得原本的白色箭头在前景的混乱中变得不那么显眼（见图 14d）。
Undersea Fauna (12:27-14:25) 海下动物群
In planetarium visualization software, it is commonplace to zoom out from the planets in the Solar System to stars at the interstellar scale, and finally clusters of galaxies at the intergalactic scale. Objects at the next scale are either visible or have their visibility fade up as the camera zoom approaches the scale associated with that object (e.g., galaxies from the Sloan Digital Sky Survey not appearing until the camera is millions of light years from Earth).
在天文馆可视化软件中，经常采用变焦手法，从太阳系行星缩放到星际尺度的恒星，再缩放到星系尺度的星系团。随着镜头变焦到下一尺度，该尺度下的物体会变得可见，或逐渐提高可见度（例如斯隆数字巡天（Sloan Digital Sky Survey）能拍到的星系，直到镜头远离地球数百光年时才会显现）。
Fig. 15: Domemasters from Dynamic Earth showing a zoom out through multiple size scales and representative fauna at each scale. ©DMNS and Spitz.
图 15：图 15：《动态地球》球幕母版，展示了多个尺度的变焦放大效果，以及每个尺度中代表性的动物群。©DMNS 和 Spitz 版权所有。
In this last sequence from Dynamic Earth, a zoom through multiple underwater scales to view different animals found at those scales uses a new visual paradigm of a rack focus instead of physical movement to denote the change of scale. Since the smallest scale is at the level of photosynthetic dinoflagellates (at tens of microns across) that forms the base of the food chain in the oceans (Fig. 15a), such a transition would appear to mimic the re-focusing of microbial life captured between slides in a microscope. Before the re-focusing, the next scale is evident as blurred forms in the background behind the foreground creatures.
《动态地球》的最后一组镜头片段通过变焦到多个尺度来观察水下的不同动物，该片段采用了一种新的视觉效果——通过推拉焦而不是物理运动来表示尺度的变化。尺度最小的是数十微米宽的光合甲藻，它们是海洋食物链的基础（图 15a），这种过渡看起来模仿了显微镜下夹在载玻片之间的微生物样本的重新聚焦过程。在重新聚焦之前，下一个尺度的生物以模糊的形式出现在背景中。
After the camera re-focuses/zooms to the next scale, copepods, tiny crustaceans 1-2 mm in length, become clear (Fig. 15b). Like the dinoflagellates before them, the copepods are immersed within ocean water. Instead of merely floating and drifting, the copepods propel themselves forward, including one that hits the virtual camera “lens” with a noticeable thump in the soundtrack (Fig. 15c).
当镜头重新聚焦并缩放到下一个尺度时，桡足类（1-2 毫米长的小型甲壳动物）变得清晰可见（图 15b）。与之前的甲藻一样，桡足类动物被海水包围，它们不仅漂浮和漂流，还主动推动自己前进，其中一只甚至在音轨上以明显的撞击声撞上了虚拟摄影机的“镜头”（图 15c）。
The next change in scale shows octopus larvae, less than 1 cm in length (Fig. 15d). As with all of the fauna shown so far in this sequence, the individuals rendered are floating or self-propelling through the water in every direction throughout the domemaster. The audience’s gaze is not being redirected to any one location in the dome. All directions are equally likely to have activity.
接下来尺度的变化展示了不到 1 厘米长的章鱼幼体（图 15d）。与目前为止该片段中展示的所有生物一样，这些个体在球幕母版画面的每个方向上漂浮或自行推进。观众的视线没有被引向球幕的特定位置，在所有方向上都可能发生活动。
The one exception is the copepod that bumps up against the camera lens, which is doing so against the forward center part of the domemaster, making its activity easy to spot by the viewer.
唯一的例外是一只桡足类触碰到了摄影机镜头，这一动作发生在球幕的前方中心部分，观众很容易注意到。
The next jump in scale reveals a school of black jack, a large ocean fish that can measure up to a meter in length. They swim in front of and around the camera. The eye is easily drawn to nearby individuals who dominate the scene when they swim close enough to be illuminated by (presumably) a lamp associated with the virtual camera (Fig. 15e).
当尺度进一步扩大，一群长达一米的黑杰克鱼出现了。它们在摄影机前方和周围游动，当它们游得足够近时，可以被虚拟摄影机的灯光照亮，从而吸引观众的目光。
However when the school of fish is more distant, the grouping of darkened fish (no longer lit by the virtual light source) swimming in unison draws attention. The disk of the sun, distorted in appearance when viewed from beneath the surface of the waves, is also prominent since it is the only other light source in the scene.
然而，当鱼群更远时，一群统一游动的暗淡鱼类（不再被虚拟光源照亮）引起了观众的注意。从波浪下方看，太阳的圆盘扭曲了，作为场景中唯一的其他光源，它也很突出。
As the school of jacks disappear, they are replaced by one, followed by many, hammerhead sharks (Fig. 15f). We have now reached a size scale of several meters. Although they are fewer in number, the sharks still fill up the dome impressively (Fig. 15g).
当黑杰克鱼群消失后，它们被从一只到多只锤头鲨所取代。现在我们已经来到了几米的尺度，尽管数量较少，但鲨鱼仍然令人印象深刻地填满了球幕画面。
The end of the sequence nears as the hammerhead sharks disappear except for a handful that swim near the top of the dome (corresponding to the center of the domemaster). Since these are just at the edge of the audience’s visual field (even for those sit at the back of the room), they help frame and highlight the large space in the forward part of the dome where no sharks are swimming (Fig. 15h). Even the light from the sun dims as the camera plunges deeper into the ocean.
在这个片段接近尾声时，锤头鲨逐渐消失，只剩下少数几只在球幕顶部附近游动（对应球幕母版中心）。因为这个位置正好处于观众视野的边缘，包括后方观众也是如此，所以这有助于突出展示球幕前部没有鲨鱼游动的庞大空间。随着摄影机深入海洋，太阳的光线也逐渐变暗。
The large negative space becomes a compelling area of focus by dominating the frame and being in the front center. The audience is finally rewarded with the beak of a large baleen whale that emerges from the murk, slight right of forward center. As the whale swims gracefully through the scene, the sun has diminished into a faint smudge. Our attention is captured by the whale, lit by the only bright light left, the virtual spotlight associated with the camera. The illumination catches the large eye, which, being eye-like, also becomes the focus of the viewer (Fig. 15i).
最终，一个广阔的空白区域占据了画面的中心和前部，成为引人注目的焦点。观众被一只大型鲸鱼的喙所吸引，它从昏暗中出现在正前方的右侧。当鲸鱼优雅地游过场景时，太阳已经减弱为一块微弱的污迹。我们的注意力被鲸鱼所吸引，它被唯一的光所照亮，即连接在摄影机上的虚拟聚光灯。照明捕捉到了鲸鱼巨大的眼睛，眼睛的形状也自然成为了观众的焦点。
Habitat Earth 地球：万物的栖息地
Kelp Forest Sequence (02:50-06:10) 海藻森林片段
Fig. 16: Domemasters from Habitat Earth showing frames from the kelp forest sequence. ©California Academy of Sciences.
图 16：《地球：万物的栖息地》球幕静帧，展示了海藻森林的片段。© 加州科学院 版权所有。
In the California Academy of Sciences production Habitat Earth, the show introduces a kelp forest early in the show, building a set of concepts that will be integral to ideas developed later in the story. The kelp forest is introduced with the camera moving forward through an underwater depiction of San Francisco Bay, as a wipe transition reveals the clearer, bluer waters with kelp visible in the distance (Fig. 16a).
在加州科学院的《地球：万物的栖息地》中，影片一开始就引入了海藻森林，为后续故事中发展的概念奠定了基础。随着镜头缓缓穿梭在模拟的旧金山湾水下，海藻在远方清晰可见，水域由浑浊变得清澈湛蓝（图 16a）。
As the camera enters the kelp forest, its forward motion slows, inviting viewers to look around and feel immersed in the environment; the narration describes the kelp forest in general terms, without drawing attention to any particular elements in the scene.
镜头缓缓进入海藻森林，邀请观众环顾四周，感受沉浸在环境中的体验；旁白以一般性词汇描述海藻森林，并未指向场景中的任何特定元素。
A slight camera tilt downward accompanies a reference to kelp fronds on the seafloor (a significant source of nutrients), but only when a school of fish moves rapidly from the left into the mid-ground (Fig. 16b) is the viewers’ attention pulled toward a specific location on-screen, timed to a reference to “spiny purple sea urchins” in the narration. The combination of movement and contrasting color ensure that the audience is looking at the right place at the right time.
镜头轻微下倾，指向海底的海藻叶（一个重要的营养来源），但只有当一群鱼快速从左侧游入中景时（图 16b），观众的注意力才被引向银幕上的一个特定位置，这一时刻旁白恰好提到“多刺紫色海胆”。运动和颜色对比的结合，确保观众在正确的时间看向正确的位置。
The reappearance of the school of fish (this time moving from right to left in the frame) draws attention toward the center of the frame just in time for a sea otter to appear in the distance (Fig. 16c). The sea otter’s movement and high contrast facial features maintain its focus as the center of interest (Fig. 16d), and the camera naturally follows the otter as it ascends to the water’s surface, where it joins a second sea otter to consume a sea urchin snack (Fig. 16e).
鱼群再次出现，这次从右向左游动，将注意力引向画面中心，恰逢一只海獭在远处出现（图 16c）。海獭的运动和高对比度的面部特征使其成为焦点（图 16d），镜头自然跟随海獭上升到水面，在那里它加入了另一只海獭，共享海胆小吃（图 16e）。
Although the change in scenery (from below water to above water) and relatively motionless camera invite the audience to look around and enjoy the environment in a relatively undirected fashion, the pull of the mammals’ faces and behavior keeps attention focused on the sea otters, as the narration describes their importance to the proper functioning of the kelp forest ecosystem.
尽管从水下到水上的场景变化和相对静止的镜头邀请观众自由环顾并享受环境，但哺乳动物的面部和行为的吸引力使观众的注意力依然集中在海獭身上，旁白描述了它们对海藻森林生态系统正常运作的重要性。
When the camera follows the second sea otter back underwater, the creature’s path crosses the center of interest in the front of the theater, and in its perceptual wake, graphic elements appear to illustrate various concepts in the narration (Fig. 16f). The saturated green, yellow, and orange of these elements contrasts with the “natural” hues in the scene, effectively directing the viewers’ attention to the relevant content on-screen.
当镜头跟随第二只海獭回到水下时，它的运动路径穿过了影院前部的焦点区域。在它的感知尾迹中，图形元素出现，以说明旁白中的各种概念（图 16f）。这些元素鲜艳的绿、黄、橙色与场景中的自然色彩形成对比，有效地引导观众将注意力转移到银幕上的相关内容。
Fig. 17: Domemasters from Habitat Earth showing frames from the kelp forest sequence. ©California Academy of Sciences.
图 17：展示了《地球家园》中的穹顶画面，呈现了海藻森林片段的静帧。© 加州科学院 版权所有。
The sequence continues with fluid camera motion highlighting various vignettes in the kelp forest, maintaining the focus in the center of interest (Figs. 17a, 17b). In order to illustrate a rapid change in scale from centimeters to microns, the virtual camera racks focus in a style similar to the Dynamic Earth undersea fauna sequence described above (Fig. 17c). After returning to a macroscopic scale, we reprise the highly saturated graphic elements that appeared earlier in the scene, illustrating the connections between different species in a complex food web (Fig. 17d). Minimal camera motion once again invites the audience to examine the entire scene, underscoring the concept that these environments are highly complex. As the kelp forest sequence draws to a close, the narration makes a critical point about the Sun being the energy source for the biodiversity we have witnessed in the scene, and a lack of large objects in the center of interest coupled with the brightness of sunlight refracting through the water’s surface draws viewers’ attention to the location of the Sun on the dome (Fig. 17e). This precedes a crossfade to the next scene in the show, to a terrestrial forest (Fig. 17f). The similar positioning of the Sun at the end of the kelp forest sequence and the beginning of the terrestrial forest sequence reinforces continuity between the two scenes and also emphasizes the critical content point that the Sun provides energy for virtually all living systems on Earth.
该片段以流畅的镜头运动继续，突出了海藻森林中的各种小插曲，保持了观众焦点区域的中心（图 17a，17b）。为了说明从厘米到微米的快速尺度变化，虚拟摄影机以类似《动态地球》海底动物片段的风格进行推拉焦（图 17c）。回到宏观尺度后，影片重新展示了之前场景中出现的高饱和度图形元素，呈现了不同物种在复杂食物网中的联系（图 17d）。微小的镜头运动再次邀请观众查看整个场景，强调“这些环境极其复杂”的概念。随着海藻森林片段接近尾声，旁白提出了一个关键知识点，即：太阳是我们在以上场景中见证的生物多样性的能量来源。此时，观众的焦点区域缺乏较大的物体，加上透过水面折射的阳光具有较高亮度，这两个因素吸引了观众将注意力移向球幕上方太阳的位置（图 17e）。接下来，影片通过转场过渡到下一个陆地森林的场景（图 17f）。在海藻森林片段结束和陆地森林片段开始时，太阳的位置保持相似，这强化了两个场景之间的连续性，也强调了太阳为地球上几乎所有生命系统提供能量的关键知识点。
Conclusions and future work 结论与未来研究方向
Despite having the substantial freedom to direct their gaze anywhere in the dome, audiences often do not. Part of this reason may be due to center bias, where we naturally return our gaze to what is directly in front of us. But clever directors and producers can also redirect audience attention. The most important visual cues they can use are motion followed by human (or animal) faces; less important are secondary cues like brightness and color variations, and “looming” objects.
尽管观众在球幕影院中拥有将视线投向任何地方的自由，但他们往往不会这么做。这可能是由于我们自然倾向于将视线回到正前方的“中心偏好”所导致的。然而，聪明的导演和制片人可以通过巧妙的手法来引导观众的注意力。他们可以利用的最重要的视觉线索是运动，其次是人或动物的面部表情；亮度和颜色变化，以及“逼近”的物体，则是次要的视觉线索。
It may be possible for one moving object to direct focus so effectively that the rest of the visual environment is ignored. When changes occurring elsewhere in the visual field are finally noticed, they can be a surprise to the viewer. The power of motion and other visual cues to draw attention may explain why faster paced giant screen documentaries and Hollywood narrative films shown in IMAX theaters (Paper I, pp. 31-34) are still comprehensible to audiences.
一个移动的物体可以如此有效地吸引注意力，以至于观众会忽略视觉环境中的其他元素。当观众最终注意到视野中其他地方发生的变化时，可能会感到惊讶。运动和其他视觉线索的强大吸引力，可能解释了为什么节奏更快的巨幕纪录片以及在 IMAX 影院放映的好莱坞故事片（见上篇论文）仍然能够被观众理解。
These types of cues become more important for productions not intended for tilted fulldome theaters. In unidirectional theaters, the bias to the center defines an easy “default” direction for the audience to look. In level theaters with concentric seating, the “default” view may shift to the zenith of the dome, but depending on the seat tilt, there may not be a common point in the dome that is easily visible to all of the audience.
在并不针对倾斜全景球幕影院而制作的影片中，这些视觉线索变得更加重要。在单向球幕影院中，观众对中心的偏好定义了一个体感比较轻松的“默认”观看方向。在具有同心座位的水平式球幕影院中，“默认”视野可能转移到球幕的顶部。但根据座位的倾斜程度，球幕上可能没有一个对所有观众都容易看到的共同点。
However, even in this latter case, the visual cueing discussed in this paper can be used to draw viewer attention. Merely “panning” the object of interest around the theater can draw audience attention because of its motion. In virtual reality (VR), the full visual field is spherical instead of hemispherical. Yet almost all consumer head-mounted displays have limited fields-of-view that are roughly 100° across, far smaller than fulldome (Shanklin 2016). Therefore when developing content that can also play in VR as well as fulldome, it is even more important for visual cues be used to effectively guide the viewer.
然而，即使在这种情况下，本文讨论的视觉线索也可以用来吸引观众的注意力。简单地让关注对象在影院银幕四周“移动”（panning），其运动就足以吸引观众的注意力。在虚拟现实（VR）中，完整的视觉场是全向的，而不仅仅是半球形的。然而，几乎所有消费者头戴式显示器的视野范围都是有限的，大约只有 100° 宽，远小于全景球幕影院 (Shanklin 2016)。因此，在开发同时兼容 VR 和全景球幕影院的内容时，有效使用视觉线索来引导观众变得尤为重要。
The cues we have discussed in this paper are suggestive based on anecdotal evidence, earlier findings in human perception, and work by cognitive psychologists studying how viewers react to traditional cinema. We do not have comparable research to show how effective such cues are in actual fulldome films shown in real-life settings. However it appears that large-scale eye-tracking experiments in a dome theater are possible (Bielecki, Potęga vel Żabik, & Gochna 2016). New empirical studies based on their approach will help shore up our results, and place any recommended best practices for immersive cinema on a solid research footing.
本文讨论的视觉线索是以轶事证据（anecdotal evidence），对人类感知的早期发现，以及认知心理学家对传统电影观众反应的研究为基础的。目前尚未有比较研究来证明这些线索在实际全景球幕影院放映的效果如何。不过，在球幕影院进行大规模的眼动追踪实验应该是可行的 (Bielecki, Potęga vel Żabik, & Gochna 2016)。基于这一方法展开的新的实证研究将有助于支撑我们的结果，并将沉浸式电影的任何推荐最佳实践建立在坚实的研究基础之上。
Acknowledgments 致谢
We thank Tom Lucas, Donna Cox, and Mike Bruno for permission to use images from their films. We also thank Kathy Honda for help with our library research.
感谢 Tom Lucas，Donna Cox 和 Mike Bruno 允许我们使用他们电影中的静帧。感谢 Kathy Honda 帮助我们进行图书馆文献搜索。
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- 1.This could be due to an intrinsic desire to focus in the forward direction, or as Pausch et al. noted, perhaps the participant in the ride was unfamiliar enough with the technology not to know to look to the side. This unfamiliarity correlates with a potential technology generation gap, where even today, we see anecdotal evidence that older users who try out consumer virtual reality headsets do not move around and engage as much as younger users (Willer 2016). 这种趋势可能是因为人们天生更倾向于注视前方，或者如 Pausch 等人所指出的，可能是因为参与者对技术不够熟悉，不知道应该环顾四周。这种对技术的不熟悉可能与潜在的技术接受度差异有关：即便在今天，我们也观察到老年用户在使用消费级虚拟现实头显时，他们的活动和参与度通常不如年轻用户那样高 (Willer 2016)。 ↩
- 2.In fact, the footage was originally shot in HD format, not fisheye. It was composited into the fisheye with black painted over imagery missing from the real shot. 实际上，这组镜头本来是用高清格式拍摄的，没有使用鱼眼镜头。 ↩
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